Colonial Williamsburg Digital Library

[1777]

"When there is a plentiful Mast (what they call Mast are acorns, Walnuts, Chestnuts, and all wild fruits) the Hogs will get fat in the woods with little, or no corn. Great quantities are killed as soon as they are taken out of the woods, salted, barrelled and sent to the West Indies. Sells from 12 to 27 shillings Currency per hundred. Journal of Nicholas Creswell, 1774-1777, p. 199.

One man exclaimed that the Virginia hams were so fine due to the unusual diet of the hogs:

[1797-1811]

"Virginia was also famous for its hams, which, next to the orthodox Westphalia, are the finest I have ever eaten. By what process the latter attain their excellence I am ignorant, but here the pigs were always turned into the woods, and, listen, O epicure of the East! their chief source of subsistence was the snakes." [Bernard, John, Retrospections of America, 1797-1811, (New York, 1887), p. 170]

1) Benjamin Hanson

In 1736/7, there was notice posted in York County Orders and Wills of an action of a debt regarding Benjamin Hanson, "Butcher."

In 1745, Hanson, "Butcher and Grazier, living next door to Col. Custis's in, Williamsburg," advertised for mutton or beef "to dispose of" or "to stall." Col. Custis in the 1740's was near the magazine at Francis St. and England St. There was a tannery located in the area according to a later reference. (H. Gill, interview)

2) Stephen Brown

In 1749/50, Stephen Brown was buying property from Benjamin Waller — north side of York Rd. bounded by lot #34 — his lots were #35 and 36. Brown was to finish building a house on the lots within three years. (See 1790 map)

3) John Curtis

In 1753, John Curtis, "A Butcher in this City …" was found in bed with his throat cut. He had been out gaming the night before and had lost all his money, his horse, etc.

4) Joseph Vason

Joseph Vason "of the City of Williamsburg" in 1764, was buying and selling land in York County. The area is not specified.

5) George Chaplin

In 1769, George Chaplin advertised his medicine for distemper. It was 9 available from him, a "butcher, on the main street."

In 1771, Chaplin deeded 8 lots "… in or near Wi11iamsburg…" to William Pearson. The lots were in the Capitol Landing Road area. According to the 1790 map of Williamsburg, Pearson had tanyard lots here. (see 1790 map) If a butcher had previously owned land where a tanyard exists in 1790, it seems that the area itself was considered suitable for meat processing in the time period.

BENJAMIN HANSON

York County Orders and Wills 18, p. 351 March 21, 1736/7 In the Action of Debt between Alexr Maver plt & Benjamin Hanson Butcher Deft.; The Deft come into Court & prayed an Imparlance to the next Court & to him it is allowed.

Virginia Gazette Oct. 24, 1745 ANY Person, having good Grass Mutton or Beef to dispose of, or, any that they have a Mind to stall, may meet with a very good Market for the same, by applying, in Time, to Benjamin Hanson, Butcher and Grazier, living next Door to Col. Custis's, in Williamsburg.

STEPHEN BROWN

Deed: Benjamin Waller of Williamsburg Esqr to Stephen Brown of same Butcher. For £15..7..6 Waller sells to Brown 2 lots in the parish of Bruton, York County, on the North side of the main road leading from the City of Williamsburg to York Town. Bounded on the South by the said Road on the east by the land of Mary Morris on the North by the land of the said Waller and on the west by the Lot number 34 which said 2 lots are denoted on the plan thereof which is annexed by the figures 35, 36, & is part of a tract of land purchased by Waller of Mann Page. Within 3 years next ensuing Brown must finish on the said Lots one good Dwelling house Containing 16 feet in width and 20 feet in length at the least with a brick chimney thereto, the said House to front in a line with the row of lots which it stands at the distance of six feet from the Extreem Southern Bounds of the said Lots.
Ben Waller

Recorded: 19 March 1749/50

JOHN CURTIS

Williamsburg, November 23

On Sunday morning last, one John Curtis, a Butcher in this City, having been a gaming the Night before, and loosing all his Money, his Horse, etc., was found on his Bed with his Throat cut, of which he died the Night following: The Coroner's Jury sat on the body, and brought in their Verdict Felo de se.

JOSEPH VASON

Deed dated 21 May 1764.

Joseph Vason of the City of Williamsburg butcher of the one part and John Blair Senr Esqr of the said City of the other part. For £10 Vason sells to Blair "a certain piece or parcel of land lying & being in the County of York formerly the property of the said John Blair and by him Sold out of a larger Tract to the said Joseph Vason by Deed bearing Date the (10 Dec. 1761) as by the said Deed recorded in the General Court may more at large appear containing six Acres two thirds of an acre… "

Recorded: 21 May 1764

GEORGE CHAPLIN

Virginia Gazette (R): September 21, 1769.

WILLIAMSBURG, Sept. 14, 1769

To the PUBLIC,
A PERSON experienced in all distempers incident to cattle, has, with great success, made trial of a certain medicine, very salutary in preserving from or entirely restoring those who have already catched the distemper, which new rages so general. The above medicine may be had by applying to Mr. George Chaplin, butcher, on the main street.

York County Deed Book 8, 1769-1777, pp. 109-110

20 April 1771

George Chaplin of Williamsburg Butcher & Rebecca his wife to William Pearson of the same place…

8 lots or ½ acres in or near Williamsburg bounded on North by land of Benjamin Powell, on West by land of James Southall, on South by lands of Thomas Craig & Frederick Bryan and on East by Road to Capitol Landing…

Being tract of land conveyed to Chaplin by John Blair by deed dated the day before these presents

Recorded: 20 May 1771

See: pp. 245-246. Same deed recorded July 20, 1772.

RECEIPTS USING THE WHOLE PIG

Several receipts in Glasse's and Smith's cookbooks call for beginning with a whole pig.

E. Smith, in "To roast a Pig" (p. 18) explains to soak it in milk, cut the head off, and cut the pig in two before spitting it. "To bake a Pig" (p. 23) involves cooking the whole pig in the oven. In "To collar a pig" (p. 59), first the cook is to cut off the head, "and the body asunder," bone it, and cut two collars; after laying it in water to take out the blood, the cook rolls up the side, or collar tightly, and ties it; then boils the collars and puts a boiled vinegar solution over the collars "to keep for use."

Glasse's receipt for "collared pig" (p. 88) says to "kill a fine young roasting pig," dress off the hair, draw it, wash clean, rip it open from one end to the other; further directions are to take out the bones, season it, roll up the pig tight, and bind it. It is then boiled. It should always be kept covered.

For "A Pig Matelote" (Glasse, p. 90), the pig is gutted and scalded. Next the cook is directed to cut off the head and pettitoes, and cut the pig in four quarters; to stew all of these and season; to add various seafoods; and at the end, to "Fry the brains and lay round, and allover the dish."

For "To dress a Pig like a fat Lamb" (Glasse, p. 90), the cook should take a fat pig, and before parboiling and roasting, cut off the head, slit and truss him up like a lamb.

For "Barbecued Pig" (Glasse, p. 90), one is instructed to dress a pig 10 to 12 weeks old, to stuff it with forcemeat and roast it; then to put an orange into its mouth.

WAYS TO COOK CUTS OF PORK

SALT

Salt, an important item of commerce in the American colonies, was the major preservative for meat and fish.

Salt was usually sold, shipped, and stored in bags made of twill, holding four bushels. The bags were usually marked to designate the quality of the salt, fine or coarse. (Harold Gill, Research Dept.) Salt that was imported from certain areas of England, Spain, and Portugal seems to have been preferred.

The importance of the quality of salt used in preserving food was realized by cookbook writers. Hannah Glasse says, "The salt which is commonly used hardens and spoils all the meat." (Glasse, p. 282) Glasse describes the salt that is preferred for preserving pork. In her receipt "To make Pork Hams," she says that Yorkshire (England) is famous for hams, their salt being "much finer than ours in London; it is a large clear salt, and gives the meat a fine flavour. I used to have it from Malden in Essex, and that salt will make any ham as fine as you can desire; it is by much the best salt for salting of meat …" (Glasse, p. 296)

Receipts for salting pork generally specify the type of salt to use, with terms like: "Common Salt," "Bay Salt," "White Salt," and "Salt-petre." "Bay Salt" is preferred for curing meats, with the addition of some "Salt-petre."

In her receipt book Martha Bradley discusses the various kinds of salt and their respective qualities. The two basic kinds are COMMON SALT and SALT-PETRE.

COMMON SALT, according to Bradley, was of four different types, the differences being determined by the manner in which they were made — "Sea salt," "Bay salt," "Basket salt," and "Rock salt." The first two, Sea salt and Bay salt, are both made from sea water.

Bradley explains that "Sea salt" was made by boiling and evaporating sea water in great pans over fire; whereas "Bay Salt" was made by evaporating the sea water "in Pits, clayed on the Inside, only by the Heat of the Sun." (M. Bradley, p. 120) Bradley continues, "The more gentle the Fire or Heat is, the stronger will be the Salt." Bay Salt is "roughest of all" (large crystals), and is "preferable to the others for most uses." (IBID)

The other types of Common Salt discussed by Bradley are "Basket Salt" (made by boiling away the water of salt springs over the fire, and the "mildest and weakest of all") and "Rock Salt" (dug out of the ground and seldom used in England.)

After the American Revolution started there was immediately a shortage of salt. The following excerpt from the journal of Nicholas Cresswell, describes a resulting incident in Alexandria, Virginia:

Wednesday, December 4th, 1776. A Dutch mob of about 40 horsemen went through the town (Leesburg) to-day on their way to Alexandria to search for Salt. If they find any they will take it by force. All of them armed with swords or large clubs. This article is exceeding scarce, if none comes in the people will revolt. They cannot possibly subsist without a considerable quantity of this article. The people in general live on Salt meat in the Summer. The excessive heat renders the keeping of fresh meat very difficult, even for one day, and the thinness of inhabitants and markets prevents them killing little else but young hogs and fowls. They likewise give Salt to their Horses, Cattle, Hogs and Sheep almost every day in the Summer. The cattle are exceedingly fond of it, so much that they will follow you anywhere for a lick of it and it is so essentially necessary that they will not thrive without it." (Journal of Nicholas Cresswell, 1774-1777, 1924, reprinted, 1968; p. 173-174.)

People were encouraged to be frugal with their purchases of salt and to even try making salt themselves, with cash bounties being given to the manufacturers.

One resolution of the General Assembly appeared in The Virginia Gazette (Purdie, December 20, 1776) concerning the frugal use of salt:

"On General Assembly, Thursday, December 19, 1776. Resolved, that if any person within this commonwealth shall purchase more salt imported, or to be imported, into the same, than he hath occasion of for the use of his family for one year, and shall refuse to sell the surplus, or demand a greater price than will be sufficient to reimburse him the first cost; on the purchase from the importer, and charges, and 15 per centum loss of measure, every person so offending shall be held and deemed an enemy to this state.
A. CARY, Speaker of the Senate.
E. PENDLETON, Speaker of the H. D."

Attempts at local salt production began during the time of the Revolution. Several salt-works were located in Virginia: Accomack, Elizabeth City, Gloucester, Isle of Wight, Northampton, Northumberland, York County, and others.

References such as the following excerpt from the Virginia Gazette (Dixon & Hunter) indicate that attempts at local salt production were short-lived.

July 10, 1779
"To be sold at publick vendue, on Thursday the 5th of August next, at Isle of Wight Courthouse.
The salt pans and appertenences belonging to the publick salt works in that county. Also at Northumberland Courthouse, on Tuesday the 10th of August, the salt pans and appertenances belonging to t publick salt works. On Thursday the 5th'of August next, will be rented to the highest bidder, at Gloucester Courthouse, the public salt works, with the appertenances thereunto belonging, in the said county, for the space of 17 months; the rent to be paid in salt, t be delivered at the time agreed on that day.
By order of the Board of Trade
William Russel, Clerk."

Following are directions for making salt published in issues of the Virginia Gazette.

Dec. 9, 1775

"SALT
Is known to be one of the most universal necessaries of life; the want of it is almost as intolerable as the want of bread. The scarcity of this necessary article among us begins already to be sensibly felt, and is daily increasing, which is likely to be followed by most alarming consequences. But ever bountiful Providence, always ready to help those who use their best endeavours to help themselves, hath placed an inexhaustible store of salt within our reach, if we will but exert our industry in collecting it from salt-water; not to mention the sea coast and the eastern shore, where our unhappy circumstances have thrown great difficulties in our way, the western shore of the bay, and the shores on both sides of all the rivers, to a considerable distance from their mouths, afford a coast of many hundred miles extent proper for this purpose. The process of procuring salt from salt-water is so simple that the most ignorant may perform it, and the proper instruments so ready in every hand as to make it easy, since every iron vessel, from the smallest pan to the largest kettle, may be made an apt utensil for this useful purpose. The nearer the sea the greater will be the quantity made, and the trouble in making less; but as far up as the rivers are, salt, and even where they are only brackish, more or less, may be procured by the simple process of boiling till the water is evaporated, taking care, towards the last part of the operation not to let the heat be so violent as to cause it to burn black. Another necessary caution is to use no brass or copper vessel, which could prove dangerous from the verdigrise. All that is necessary, is to induce all who are conveniently situated to undertake it immediately; which necessity perhaps may make them do for their own use, and a handsome bounty might encourage them to undertake for others…
John Dixon. "

William and Mary College
December 8, 1775

The Virginia Gazette (Dixon and Hunter)

For the VIRGINIA GAZETTE.

The MAKING of BAY SALT.

Low marshy grounds, disposed by nature for the reception of the sea water, when the tide swells, and provided with banks and sluices to retain the same, they call 'salt marshes.' These salt marshes, the bottoms whereof they ram with great care, are divided into square pits or basons, separated by little dikes; and into these basons, when the season is at hand, they let in the sea water The salt season is from the middle of May to the end of August. The water is admitted to the height of about six inches, after having first let it rest, exposed to the sun for two or three days, in large reservoirs without the works, that it may come in lukewarm. The water being admitted, the sluices are shut, and the rest of the work is left to wind and sun. The surface of the water being struck, and agitated with the direct rays of that luminary, thickens at first imperceptibly, and becomes at length covered over with a slight crust; which, continuing to harden, is wholly converted into salt. The water in this state is so hot that the hand cannot be put into it without scalding. When the salt has received its full coction, they break the crust with a pole, upon which it sinks to the bottom; whence, being dragged out again, they leave it in heaps about the pit, to complete its drying, covering it over with straw or rushes, to secure it from the rain.

Eight, ten, or at most fifteen days, having thus completed the crystallization, they open the sluices, when the tide rises, for a fresh stock; and thus, alternately, while the season holds.

This bay salt is refined into white salt, by boiling it in large flat caldrons, which not only lessens its acrimony, and alters its colour, but is also found to increase the quantity.

The lower parts of this county, consisting of level and marshy grounds, seem properly adapted for making this salt; insomuch, that in the hot summer months white salt is naturally formed on the marsh grass, and has been occasionally stripped off by the inhabitants, for present use, in their fishing parties.

Along the shores also a strong stiff clay abounds, doubtless very proper for laying the bottoms and sides of the pits. The coction of the salt will be done in less time in this climate, because hotter than that which requires the time mentioned above.

Here then every requisite for procuring this article is amply provided on the part of nature: Human industry is only wanting to manufacture large quantities thereof, in the easiest and cheapest manner.

Poquoson, York county,
January 18, 1776.

The Virginia Gazette, Dixon and Hunter, January 27, 1776.

Reference is made to Mr. James Tait with a salt works in the area, in several Virginia Gazette articles:

Virginia Gazette (Purdie & Dixon) August 4, 1774

"WILLIAMSBURG, August 5

By a gentleman from the Northward, we learn that Captain James Hudson, of Newbury Port, in the Massachusetts Government, has for some Years carried on an extensive SALT WORK at the Town of Salisbury, near that Place, making at least 200 Hogsheads yearly of the most excellent Salt, equal, if not superiour, to any imported;… Captain Hudson likewise says, that Salt may be made to greater Advantage in the southern Governments; which is pretty demonstrable, from a late Experiment made by Mr. James Tait near this City, who, we hear, will be encouraged to perservere in his Endeavours to serve the Publick, many Gentlemen having subscribed considerably to enable him to erect the necessary Works… "

"Manner of making WHITE SALT in Normandy
From the French.
The Salters collect on the Sea Shore a muddy Sand, which the high Water has covered, during six or seven Days, and well impregnated with Salt. (By the phrase 6 or 7 Days, it would appear that the Matter to be charged with Salt Water was carried to the Sea Shore on Purpose; but that the Original does not mention.) The impregnated Matter is then thrown into a convenient sloping Trench, the Bottom of which is covered with Straw. Through the Straw the Water filtrates, and is received by Barrels, or other proper Recipients, provided before-hand. The Salt is made of that Water, by boiling in an earthen Furnace, which has four leaden Boilers. (The Bottoms of which are undoubtedly of Iron, or Copper.) When the Water boils, the Froth, which rises abundantly, is carefully skimmed off; and as the Water diminishes, more is added, the Skimming being always continued. When it thickens, it is continually stirred with a wooden Instrument, carved at the End, called a Spoon, until the Salt granulates. It is then taken from the Fire to purify. The Purification is effected by throwing it in Osier Hampers. When it is well dried, it is disposed for a Time in Heaps, and then carried to a Store Room. (An Improvement to the above Method will readily occur to a Virginian: we have Wood in sufficient Plenty. A Hopper, such as we use to drain the Murk of our Peaches, would certainly be preferable to a Trench for draining the Earth of it's Salt Water. The Translator presents his best respects to Mr. Tait.
D.C."

Dec. 10, 1774

Considering the present high Price of SALT, which we are credibly informed was last week sold, from on board a vessel in York River, for 3s 9d a Bushel, Mr. Tait's scheme for supplying the Publick with that comodity, manufactured in the Colony, deserves more general attention and Encouragement, He offers his salt at a shilling a Bushel, or a Pristereen at most.

Feb, 17, 1775
Sabine Hall, Landon Carter

If I am obliged to Mr. Tait, the adventurer in a salt work, or to any other person, for 12 sacks of salt lately landed for me at Hobb's Hole from Norfolk, I should have been glad of a letter explaining the same, as I never sent to England for one thing (except a small box of medicines, which I got long ago) ever since I read the Boston port bill, resolving to try what necessity could do at invention, rather than deal with those (whether parents or not) who will not admit of an equality of freedom, which is certainly the only golden rule on which any kind of justice can be founded.

"Extract from the ordinance for erecting SALT WORKS in this colony, and for encouraging the making of SALT.

AND whereas it may contribute greatly towards procuring a speedy supply of so necessary an article to allow a bounty to private adventurers.

Be it therefore ordained, by the authority aforesaid, that there shall be allowed and paid by the treasurer a bounty upon the several quantities of salt herein after mentioned, to each person producing a certificate of his having made the same within six months after the passing of this ordinance, except mr. James Tait, who hath already received sufficient encouragement, that is to say: For fifty bushels, the sum of fifty shillings; for one hundred bushels, the sum of seven pounds ten shillings; for two hundred bushels, the sum of twenty pounds; and for five hundred bushels, the sum of sixty two pounds ten shillings. The said certificates to be granted by the court of the county wherein such salt shall be made, on proof thereof appearing to them.

And be it farther ordained, that the several lands whereon it shall be found necessary to erect publick salt works shall, previous to the erecting the same, be valued by three disinterested freeholders on oath, and the amount of such valuation, upon a certificate from the managers of the said works, be paid by the treasurer to the owner or owners of such lands, which shall from thenceforth be vested in the publick, to revert to the proprietor when such works shall be discontinued.

And be it farther ordained, that all appointments and powers heretofore given to commissioners for erecting salt works, by virtue of any resolutions of Convention, shall henceforth cease.

Provided nevertheless, that the said managers shall, and they are hereby authorized and required to state and settle the accounts of the said commissioners, and to take the hands by them employed for the purposes aforesaid, and also all such materials as may have been contracted for or purchased by them on the publick account.

And that all proper encouragement may be given to the speedy and effectual supplying the country with salt, Be it farther ordained, that a premium of one hundred pounds shall be paid by the publick to that manager who shall make the first two thousand bushels of good salt."

The Virginia Gazette (Purdie), July 5, 1776.

SALT-PETRE, the second type of salt discussed by Martha Bradley, is used to aid in the meat preservation and to impart the desired red color to the meat.

The O. E. D. definition for "Saltpetre," also "potassium nitrate" or "nitre," is: "a white crystalline substance having a saline taste; it is the chief constituent of gunpowder, and is used medicinally."

M. Bradley describes the source of salt-petre: "is collected from old Walls, or the Cliffs of Rocks in a rough Slate, or is made from certain Earths, and afterwards refined." (M. Bradley, p. 120) The English were getting their salt-petre from the East — Persia, China, E. Indies — in the rough state, known as "Peter-salt," and then refining it in England. After it was purified, it was called "salt-petre."

In The New Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences (Vol. II, 1778) is a description of how salt-petre ("Nitre") is made and its sources:

The earth from which nitre is made, both in Persia and the E. Indies, is a kind of yellowish marl: it is found in the bare cliffs of the sides of hills exposed to the northern or eastern winds, and never in any other situation. The earth is light, crumbly, and friable; and though it be subject to accidental variations of colour from admixtures of other earths among it, and on this occasion appears sometimes blackish, redish, or whitish, yet its other qualities always distinguish it with sufficient ease: it melts very freely in the mouth, and leaves a strong taste of salt-petre in it.

They collect large quantities of this earth, and, having prepared several pits, which they line with a firm and tough clay, they fill them half full of water, and throw into it large quantities of this earth; this soon moulders away to powder, they then add more water, and stir the whole thoroughly together; after which they let it stand four or five days: at the end of this time they open a hole in one of the sides of the pit, and by means of a channel, cut to a proper depth and lined with the same clay, they let all the clear water run out of the first pit into another, which is prepared in a level ground, and is inclosed on all sides, except the north-east, by walls, but has no covering at the top. In this pit the action of the sun and air by degrees evaporates the water, and the salt which it hath before washed out of the earth, now shoots into crystals about the sides of the pit. These crystals are small and imperfect as well as impure. They are of the same hexaedral figure with the purer crystals of this slat, but they are usually without the pyramids at the ends, and often too short for their thickness. They are of a brownish or dusky colour, and are in this state sent over to us. This is the rough nitre which we receive from the E. Indies. As the far greater part of the nitre, used in the world, is prepared in this manner, we are to suppose this kind of earth, which is found also in other countries, to be the true ore of nitre, though there are several very different ways of procuring it beside.

In many places, the ruins of old buildings, where the walls are exposed to the north-east, and are defended from rain by being covered at top, shoot forth an efflorescence is found much more abundantly in the eastern nations than any where else, and the use the people there make of it is this; they do not work it from nitre alone, but when their solution, made from the nitrous earth before described, will yield no more crystals, they then throw into the pit a quantity of these efflorescences, and it immediately after yields a large quantity of crystals, like the first. That this salt shall be found on the surface of walls is not wonderful, since it is found only on or near the surface of the earth where it is produced; they only cut away the marl for about a foot deep, to throw into the nitre-pits what remains underneath, this containing no nitre till it has been exposed to the air a sufficient time, and the same earth, where it is discovered at any thing more than a foot depth in digging, never being found to contain a grain of it.

42

Earths of whatever kind, moistened and penetrated by the dung and excrements of animals, frequently also afford nitre in large quantities. The earths at the bottom of pigeon-houses, and those of stable and cow-houses, all afford nitre, on being thrown into water and boiled. In France, where very little nitre is imported, they make all that is used in their gunpowder works, &c. from the rubbish or old mortar of buildings, and the plaister with which their houses abound. In fact, the mortar of old walls with us, if moistened with urine, and exposed to the air in a proper situation, that is, open to the north-east, and covered over to defend it from wet, never fails to afford nitre after a few weeks, and that often in no less a proportion than that of one tenth of the weight of the ingredients: finally, Hoffman affirms, that it may at any time be extracted from the air, by exposing an alcaline salt to it in a proper situation, covered over-head from rains and dews.

There is no question but a manufacture of nitre might be established in England, to as much advantage as that of France; though, in the hands in which such attempts have hitherto been, they have not succeeded. The place where the materials are exposed, is a thing to be carefully examined: it must be moderate as to the great points of moisture and dryness; if there be too much moisture, the nitre which is already formed will be washed away; and on the other hand, without some moisture, the slats will hardly be formed at all. Heat and cold, unless excessive, are of no use. It is in consequence of the requisiteness of so certain a degree of moisture to the materials from which nitre is to be obtained, that the north-east winds are of so much use in the production of it; in spring and autumn, which are the seasons when this salt is principally made, these two winds are neither too moist nor too dry, especially in the night; the south and westerly winds are destructive, because of the storms and showers they almost continually bring with them.

The earths, from which nitre is procured in greatest abundance, are found principally in Persia, in China, in the E. Indies, and in Muscovy; not that other parts of the world are without them, but in many they are disregarded. This earth affords along with the nitre but a small quantity of sea salt, though there is always some of this with the other. The rubbish and earths we boil for it in Europe always affords along with the nitre but a small quantity of sea salt, though there is always afford a very large quantity of it; but they find ways of separating a great deal of it, before they begin to shoot the nitre. When the lixivium of the nitrous earth has been boiled to a certain degree, they run it into proper vessels, in which the sea salt shoots into cubick grains at the bottom, before the nitre begins to form its crystals; they then drain off the liquor thus freed from a great part of this extraneous salt into other vessels, in which it is left to shoot for the nitre in a cold place. When they have separated all the crystals that are there found, they evaporate the liquor further and thence obtain more at length they find a large quantity of an extremely acrid and bitter liquor, fat and oily to the touch, which will afford no more crystals; and this they call the mother water of salt-petre, because, by sprinkling it on other earths, they find it disposes them for the production are far from the necessary purity, they require to be dissolved and re-crystalized two or three times to bring them to the requisite perfection; after which the French often melt them over the fire as they do our English alum, and, when a good part of the water is evaporated, they cast the whole into casks. this is what the French authors call rock or roach nitre.

Nitre promotes very much the fusion of gold or silver, and is of no ill consequence in the working those metals; but as the sulphurs of the other metals are not so intimately blended with their earths, as they are in these, it combines itself with them in the heating, and causes a detonation, by this means carrying off a very considerable portion of that sulphur which was necessary to them as that metalline form, and reducing them to a sort of calxes much more difficult of fusion than before. This is easily experienced by throwing a mixture of equal parts of nitre, and of copper, iron, lead, or tin, into a red-hot crucible. Slat-petre is therefore to be very carefully avoided in all these processes, unless first calcined itself, and burn it to an alcaline salt. In the manufactures it is used in the making of white glass, and is of the same use with common salt in the preserving of foods. In medicine it is cooling and diuretick, good in burning fevers, in which it is given with the several intentions of taking off the heat, quenching thirst, and resisting putrefaction. Riverius speaks of it as diaphoretick, and many authors celebrate it as an anodyne; but these are intentions in which it is at present less received. The ancients had an opinion that the nitre was of a caustick nature: the latter writers, supposing ours the same, have attributed the same virtues and the same qualities to it, and, in consequence of this error, have been inventing means of taking off the causticity, as they call it, of the salt, by burning it with sulphur, and a thousand other ways—but it is very certain, that purified nitre is better for all medicinal purposes than any of these idle preparations of it, when the salt is intended to be given on those occasions where its own simple nature is required.

The New Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, Vol. II. Rev. Erasmus Middleton, London: by Authority, for the Authors, 1778.

During the Revolution there was also the shortage of salt-petre as evidenced in the following article from the Virginia Gazette in which it is suggested making salt-petre from waste matter of tobacco.

Oct. 27, 1775

"As salt Petre is an article much wanted in America, the Committee of Safety earnestly recommend it to the planters of tobacco in this colony to cut down and preserve all their tobacco suckers, and also preserve the trash, stalks, and sweepings of their tobacco-houses, which are found to be exceedingly useful in the production of that necessary article."

Mary Randolph explains, "The generally received opinion that salt-petre hardens meat, is entirely erroneous: — it tends greatly to prevent putrefaction, but will not make it hard;… "

However, unless one is careful with the amount, salt-petre can have a toughening effect on the meat fibers. Hess (1981) says that this effect of the salt petre can be counteracted with the addition of sugar. She also advises using barely enough to "impart an appetizing blush of color, no more than a teaspoon for a good-sized tongue, perhaps less." (Hess, 1981, p. 193.)

The Revolutionary Saltworks of the New Jersey Coast

The Revolutionary Saltworks of the New Jersey Coast - CHAPTER III

The Revolutionary Saltworks of the New Jersey Coast - CHAPTER VII

The Revolutionary Saltworks of the New Jersey Coast - continued

The Revolutionary Saltworks of the New Jersey Coast - continued

PRESERVING PORK — PROCESS OF SALTING AND SMOKING

One of two methods of meat preservation with salt was employed. In the South "dry salt curing," rather than using a "brine," was more popular. (Kinsman)

PICKLING PORK-SOUSE

Vinegar was widely used as a preservative but generally for short term storage of a few weeks to a month. Meat was kept immersed in the vinegar and turned periodically. (Kinsman)

Glasse has receipts for preserving in a pickle: "To preserve or pickle Pig's feet and ears" (p. 136); "To pickle Pork" (p. 292). The pickle for pig's feet and ears includes spices and herbs and Rhenish wine; and the strained liquor is poured over the meat in an earthen pot. When they are cold, they are to be covered down close.

In addition to a receipt "To corn shote", Mary Randolph includes directions "To make souse", (p. 50) and "soused feet in ragout."

Potted Meat

Potting was widely practiced for cooked meats to preserve them for an extended period. Basically this consisted of placing the meat in earthenware crocks and sealing them with clarified butter. (Kinsman)

Glasse has receipts for potting meats. (p. 284-285.)

Fat — Lard

During the butchering process, different pots would be set out into which would be thrown the various trimmings of fat.

A sausage pot would be started for the trimmings of lean meat. Two lard pots would be started for all the trimmings of fat to be rendered into lard.

The leaf fat is first removed. It lies in flakes in the cavity of the pig's belly covering the loin and can be pulled out in layers. It is cut up and thrown into one of the lard pots. Leaf lard is the finest, whitest lard for pastries and can be stored in sealed jars and kept indefinitely on a pantry shelf. (Bacon)

The second lard pot is reserved for all the rest of the fat — mostly trimmings from the hams and shoulders — and makes lard for general cooking or for making soap. (Ibid)

The fat trimmings are left out all night in the lard pots so that the cold air can solidify the fat. The next day the lard is rendered the following way as described by Wigginton in The Foxfire Book, p. 207.

"In the morning, the fat is cut up into pieces about the size of hens' eggs and put in a pot containing just enough water to keep it from sticking to the sides when cooked. The pot is then placed over a fire, and the fat is allowed to cook slowly. It is stirred often. By evening, the grease will have bailed out, the water evaporated, and the hard residue called "cracklin's" will have fallen to the bottom.

The grease (lard) is poured into containers, allowed to harden, and is used all winter for cooking. The cracklin's are saved for bread. Add soda if you don't want many cracklin's. The soda also keeps it from smelling while cooking and from tasting strong."

From a hog that has been well fed there is a lot of meat-laced fat that will become salt pork for seasoning vegetables. To prepare salt pork, chunks are cut (about 2" x 4") and rubbed generously with salt. These chunks are packed into stoneware crocks with a layer of salt between each layer of pork. The crocks should be stored in a cool place. (Bacon)

TO CURE BACON

Hogs are in the highest perfection, from two and a half to four years old, and make the best bacon, when they do not weigh more than one hundred and fifty or sixty at farthest: They should be fed with corn, six weeks, at least, before they are killed, and the shorter distance they are driven to market, the better will their flesh be. To secure them against the possibility of spoiling, salt them before they get cold: take out the chine or back-bone from the neck to the tail, cut the hams, shoulders and middlings; take the ribs from the shoulders, and the leaf fat from the hams: have such tubs as are directed for beef, rub a large table-spoonful of salt petre on the inside of each ham, for some minutes, then rub both sides well with salt, sprinkle the bottom of the tub with salt, lay the hams with the skin downward, and put a good deal of salt between each layer; salt the shoulders and middlings in the same manner, but less salt-petre is necessary: cut the jowl or chop from the head, and rub it with salt and salt-petre. You should cut off the feet just above the knee-joint; take off the ears and noses, and lay them in a large tub of cold water for souse. When the jowls have been in salt two weeks, hang them up to smoke—do so with the shoulders and middlings at the end of three weeks, and the hams at the end of four. If they remain longer in salt they will be hard. Remember to hang the hams and shoulders with the hocks down to preserve the juices. Make a good smoke every morning, and be careful not to have a blaze; the smoke-house should stand alone, for any additional heat will spoil the meat. During the hot weather, beginning the first of April, it should be occasionally taken down, examined, rubbed with hickory ashes, and hung up again.

The generally received opinion that salt­petre hardens meat, is entirely erroneous:—it tends greatly to prevent putrefaction, but will not make it hard; neither will laying in brine five or six weeks in cold weather, have that effect, but remaining in salt too long, will certainly draw off the juices, and harden it. Bacon should be boiled in a large quantity of water, and a ham is not done sufficiently, till the bone on the under part comes off with ease. New bacon requires much longer boiling than that which is old.

(The Virginia Housewife, Mary Randolph, l824.)

While the meat was fresh, the spare-rib and loin (the chine) were roasted whole, or cut into "griskins" (chops) and broiled. Other parts that were prepared fresh included the brains (in sauces and for garnishing dishes), the "Harslet" (the heart, liver, lungs, and kidneys used with other dishes or fried), and the guts and chitterlings (intestines were fried or boiled, often containing pudding or stuffing.)

Some parts were pickled (soused): the head, ears, and "petty-toes" (trotters or feet.)

SAUSAGE

Sausage and blood puddings were popular products of winter butchering. A letter in 1736, from William Byrd to Sir John Randolph refers to Lady Randolph's presiding over the Christmas season cookery of her own household. Byrd writes: "In hopes you may be safe at Williamsburg by this Time and my Lady up to the Elbow in Sassages and Black Puddings…"

Very fine Sausages.

TAKE a leg of pork or veal; pick it clean from skin or fat, and to every pound of lean meat put two pounds of beef-suet pick'd from the skins; shred the meat and suet severally very fine; then mix them well together, and add a large handful of green sage, shred very small, season it with grated nutmeg, salt and pepper;; mix it well, and press it down hard in an earthen pot, and keep it for use. When you use them roll them up with as much egg as will make them roll smooth, but use no flour: in rolling them up, make them the length of your [illegible]er, and as thick as two fingers: fry them in clarified suet, which must be boiling hot before you put them in. Keep them rolling about in the pan ; when they are fried through, they are enough. (The Compleat Housewife, Eliza Smith, London. First cookbook published in America by William Parks in Williamsburg, 1742.)

TO MAKE SAUSAGES.

Take the tender pieces of fresh pork, chop them exceedingly fine, chop some of the leaf fat, and put them together in the proportion of three pounds of pork to one of fat, season it very high with pepper and salt, add a small quantity of dried sage rubbed to a powder, have the skins nicely prepared, fill them and hang them in a dry place. Sausages are excellent made into cakes and fried, but will not keep so well as in skins.

TO MAKE BLACK PUDDINGS.

Catch the blood as it runs from the hog, stir it continually till cold to prevent its coagulating, when cold thicken it with boiled rice or oatmeal, add leaf fat chopped small, pepper, salt and any herbs that are liked, fill the skins and smoke them two or three days; they must be boiled before they are hung up, and prick them with a fork to keep them from bursting. (The Virginia Housewife, Mary Randolph, 1824. She was reputed to be the best cook in Virginia at the beginning of the 19th century.)